9. History

3000 BCE onwards

Early chambered tombs and Long Barrows are being made.
Stone circles and dolmens are being built in Ireland.

2500 BCE onwards

Passage graves are being built.
Stonehenge begins life as a banked enclosure.
People begin using copper.

1999 - 1500 BCE

Beaker pottery appears.
People begin making Bronze.
Battle-axe people settle.

1499 - 1000 BCE

Beginning of Bronze Age
Rich Wessex graves are built.

899 - 800 BCE

"Urnfield" cremation rites are adopted throughout North Alpine region.

799 - 700 BCE

Early Iron Age begins
Continued expansion of North Alpine culture-province.
Appearance of bronze horse-gear of eastern type.

699 - 600 BCE

First urnfields appear in Catalonia.
Iron swords and waggon graves in Bohemia and South Germany.
Development of iron-using economy in West-Central Europe.
'Massiliote Periplus' infers Celtic-speaking peoples in Iberian Peninsula (Spain) and mentions reports of 'Ierne' (Ireland) and 'Albion' (Britain).
Celts make long swords and early hill forts in S. Germany/Switzerland.
[600] Greeks found colony Massilia in France, opening trade between Celts and the Mediterranean.
A Greek-Celtic alliance forms which lasts for at least 200 years.

599 - 500 BCE

Early Greek contact with tribes in south-west Germany, Rhône route from Massilia.
Vislignen and Kappel waggon graves, Rhodian oinochi.
Heuneberg mud-brick fortifications.
Continued Greek ceramic and metal imports to expanded 'Burgundian' area.
Beginning of Etruscan trade.
Vix princess' tomb built.
Celts make daggers and princely graves.
Celts absorb some Scythian influence.
[550] Celts in the British Isles begin to build hill forts.
[530] Tartessos is destroyed by the Carthaginians, and Greeks seldom trade beyond the Pillars of Hercules.
[520] Foundation of Spina.
[508] Etruscan rule ends in Rome.
[ca. 500] Hecatus reports the Celts behind Massilia, and at Nyrax.
[ca. 500] Celts conquer Spain from Carthaginians.

499 - 400 BCE

Celtic "empire" at its height.
Beginning of native La Téne art. Etruscan imports predominate.
Chariot graves on Middle Rhône: Rodenbach, Klein Aspergle.
Inhumation burial rite now widespread.
Celts capture Cisalpine Gaul from the Etruscans.
[ca. 450] Herodotus reports the Celts in the Far West, and at the head of the Danube.
[ca. 400] Gauls invade northern Italy.

399 - 300 BCE

Expansion of La Téne culture-province. Increasing self-reliance on La Téne art.
Reinheim princess tomb.
Waldalgesheim tomb built, dated by Campagnian bucket.
[391] The Romans side against Celts at the siege of Clusium.
[387] Angered by Romans, Gauls sack Rome, holding it for nearly a year until fine exacted. For nearly a century, humbled Romans make peace with Celts.
[369] Celts fight as mercenaries against Thebans in the Pelopennesus Peninsula.
[368] Gaulish mercenaries are used in the army of Syracuse.
[335] Celts send embassy to Alexander the Great.
[c. 325-320] The Voyage of Pytheas. Britain and Ireland are coined "the Pretannic Islands."
[c. 300] Celts overrun Pannonia (western Hungary), conquering the Illyrians.

299 - 200 BCE

Celts begin to lose cohesion; empire begins to crumble.
Beginning of British Iron Age B, and insular 'La Tene' art style.
Statue of 'Dying Gaul' and related monument at Pergamon built.
[295] Celts, allied with Etruscans, suffer huge losses in defeat by Rome at Sentium.
[283] Romans again defeat Celtic/Etruscan forces at Vadimo.
[279] Galatae sack Delphi, and cross into Asia Minor the next year.
[274] Gaulish mercenaries are used in Greek services to Egypt, and widely elsewhere.
[before 230] Attalos I of Pergamon defeats the Galatae of Asia Minor (the 'Galatians')
[225] Romans defeat the Cis-Alpine Gauls and the Geasatae at Telamon.
[222] Insubres are defeated.

199 - 100 BCE

Gaulish trophies on frieze of Temple of Athene at Pergamon.
Roquepertuse and Entremont sculpture made.
Votive deposits at La Téne.
Spread of cremation graves west of the Rhine, of Belgae/Germani tribes.
Development of hill-forts ('oppida') from Gaul to Bohemia.
First Belgic migrations to Britain.
Development of early insular style.
[192] Romans are supreme throughout Cis-Alpine Gaul.
[191] The Boii are defeated.
[133] Romans capture Celtiberian stronghold of Numantia.
[124] Romans conquer Provence.
[113] Cimbri attack Noricum.
[105] Cimbri and Teutones defeat Romans at Orange.
[101] Romans finally defeat Cimbri and Teutones.

99 - 0 BCE

Sack of Wheathampstead 'oppidum' of Cassivellaunus.
Alesia: siege-works and weapons.
Gaulish trophies on the Arc d'Orange.
Decline of oppida.
Development of Later Insular Style ('Mirror Style' and horse harness mounts)
Celto-Dacian wars.
[58] Julius Caesar begins campaign in Gaul and defeats Ariovistus.
[55] Caesar makes two expeditions to Britain.
[52] Gauls under Vercingetorix rebel, and are defeated at Alesia.
[18] Druids of Gaul recognise Roman authority in exchange for religious toleration.
[15] Caesar's Alpine campaign.

1 - 100 CE

[58-51] Caesar's Gallic War successfully subjugates most continental Celts. Celts now only control Gaul, the British Isles and a small part of Iberian Peninsula.
[43] Roman troops under Claudius invade Britain.
[60] Romans destroy the Druidic stronghold and sacred groves of the Isle of Mona (Anglesey).
[60] Warrior-queen-druidess Boudica leads the revolt which crushes the Roman Ninth Legion, and burns down London and Verulamium (St. Albans). Later she and her army are defeated and destroyed by Roman Legions under Suetonius.
[100] Celts almost completely assimilated into Roman Empire.

301 - 400 CE

[383] Magnus Maximus, a Spaniard, and possibly a Celtiberian, led a band of Romano-Celts across the Channel to defeat the Emperor Gratian in Gaul. He then declared himself Emporer of all the ancient Celtic realms of Britain, France and Spain.
[388] Magnus Maximus is assassinated in Aquileia.

401 - 500 CE

St. Patrick begins Christian missionary work in Ireland.
Germanic tribes sweep through Europe.
[c.430] Germanic tribes invade Britain.
One group of Britons, led by King Arthur, puts up a stout resistance. Some give up hope and immigrate to Brittany (Amorica).

401 - 500 CE

Irish monks record the tales of the Ulster cycle.
Irish laws on civil matters are codified and recorded.
[563] St. Colum Cille founds monastery on Iona.

701 - 800 CE

[793] Viking raids attack Lindisfarne in a hit-and-run raid.
[795] Vikings begin attacking Ireland.

801 - 900 CE

[801] Iona was burnt by Vikings.
[820] Howth is plundered by Vikings, who take a great number of women.
[823] Bangor is plundered by Vikings, who steal religious items from shrines.
[824] A battle between Vikings and the men of Antrim and Down, who win the fight.
[835] Viking raids on Ireland and England become more frequent, and settlements begin.
[841] Vikings settle in Dublin.
[867] Danish raid and capture York.

901 - 1000 CE

[939] King Alan Barvek of Brittany defeats the Normans.

1001 CE to Present

[1014] Brian Boru, High King of Ireland, defeats Vikings at Clontarf.
[1040] Duncan I of Scotland killed in battle by Macbeth.
[1057] Macbeth killed by Malcom, son of Duncan I, at Lumphanan.
[1063] England invades Wales.
[1169] First Normans land in Ireland.
[1263] Invasion of Scotland by Hakon King of Norway, who was attacked on beaches by gathering
Scottish forces, beginning the Battle of the Largs. Four days later, Norwegians abandon invasion of Scotland, leaving ships and wounded on the beach.
[1265] Magnus, last king of Man, dies.
[1282] Welsh parliament declares war on England. Invading English defeated at Llandeilo.
[1283] Prince Dafydd III, last native prince of Wales, executed by English.
[1292] First Scottish parliament assembles at Scone.
[1306] Robert the Bruce crowned at Scone.
[1313] Robert the Bruce captures Dumfries, Scotland. Lands in Man to wrest it from English control.
[1328] Treaty of Edinburgh. Scottish independence is recognised by England.
[1329] Robert the Bruce dies.
[1341] Edinburgh castle captured by English, reversing independent ruling.
[1400] First action of Glyn Dwr's revolt as Welsh rebels capture town of Ruthin.
[1524] Mary Stuart, Queen of Scots, born.
[1532] Treaty between France and Brittany guaranteing Breton independence.
[1567] Mary Queen of Scots forced to abdicate throne.
[1582] University of Edinburgh founded.
[1643] Battle of Braddock Downs - Cromwellian army defeated by Cornish royalists.
[1651] Manx invasion of England turned back at the Battle of Wigan.
[1690] Irish lose the Battle of the Boyne.
[1738] Turlough O'Carolan, the greatest known Irish harper, dies.
[1746] Wearing of kilts and tartans and playing of the bagpipe is prohibited in Scotland by English.
[1778] Last pagan sacrifice conducted publicly in the Celtic world at Loch Maree, Scotland.
[1845] First report of the arrival of the potato blight in Ireland.